The Second Opium War forced China to legalize the opium trade, cede Kowloon to Britain, and surrender over 1.5 million km² to Russia.
Key Facts
- Duration
- 1856–1860
- Triggering incident
- Seizure of British-registered ship Arrow on 8 Oct 1856
- Territory ceded to Russia
- Over 1.5 million km²
- Key treaty signed
- Convention of Peking, 24 October 1860
- Old Summer Palace
- Looted and burned by Lord Elgin's forces
- Kowloon Peninsula
- Ceded to Britain as part of Hong Kong
By the Numbers
Location
Cause → Event → Consequence
Tensions over trade access and the right to import opium into China had persisted since the First Opium War. On 8 October 1856, Qing officials seized the Arrow, a British-registered cargo ship, and arrested its crew. The British consul Harry Parkes protested, and when Viceroy Ye Mingchen refused to release all sailors, British gunboats shelled Canton, escalating the dispute into open conflict.
British and French forces allied to extract treaty concessions from the Qing dynasty. They stormed Canton in December 1857, capturing Viceroy Ye Mingchen, then advanced north to seize the Taku Forts and threaten Beijing in May 1858. After the Xianfeng Emperor refused to ratify the resulting Treaty of Tientsin, fighting resumed; allied forces ultimately captured Beijing and burned the Old Summer Palace, compelling the Qing to sign the Convention of Peking in October 1860.
The Qing were forced to legalize the opium trade, open additional ports, and grant extensive concessions to Western powers. Kowloon was ceded to Britain, and simultaneous treaties with Russia transferred over 1.5 million km² of Chinese territory. The defeat deepened the Qing dynastic crisis and convinced Chinese officials that confrontations with Western powers represented a systemic national emergency rather than conventional warfare.
Belligerents & Mobilization Analysis
Side A
2 belligerents
Michael Seymour, Lord Elgin, Harry Parkes.
Side B
1 belligerent
Ye Mingchen, Sengge Rinchen, Prince Gong.